An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite point charges q and –q, separated by a distance 2a. The line connecting the two charges defines a direction in space. By convention, the direction from –q to q is said to be the direction of the dipole.

The mid-point of locations of –q and q is called the centre of the dipole. The total charge of the electric dipole is obviously zero. This does not mean that the field of the electric dipole is zero. Since the charge q and –q are separated by some distance, the electric fields due to them, when added, do not exactly cancel out. However, at distances much larger than the separation of the two charges forming a dipole (r >> 2a), the fields due to q and –q nearly cancel out. The electric field due to a dipole therefore falls off, at large distance, faster than like (the dependence on r of the field due to a single charge q). These qualitative ideas are borne out by the explicit calculation as follows:

The field of an electric dipole

The electric field of the pair of charges (–q and q) at any point in space can be found out from Coulomb’s law and the superposition principle. The results are simple for the following two cases: (i) when the point is on the dipole axis, and (ii) when it is in the equatorial plane of the dipole, i.e., on a plane perpendicular to the dipole axis through its centre. The electric field at any general point P is obtained by adding the electric fields E(–q) due to the charge –q and E(+q) due to the charge q, by the parallelogram law of vectors.

(i) For points on the axis

Let the point P be at distance r from the centre of the dipole on the side of the charge q,

where ˆp is the unit vector along the dipole axis (from –q to q). Also,

The total field at P is

For r >> a,

For points on the equatorial plane

The magnitudes of the electric fields due to the two charges +q and –q are given by

and are equal.

Clearly, the components normal to the dipole axis cancel away. The components along the dipole axis add up. The total electric field is opposite to ˆp . We have

At large distances (r >> a), this reduces to

it is clear that the dipole field at large distances does not involve q and a separately; it depends on the product qa. This suggests the definition of dipole moment. The dipole moment vector p of an electric dipole is defined by

that is, it is a vector whose magnitude is charge q times the separation 2a (between the pair of charges q, –q) and the direction is along the line from –q to q. In terms of p, the electric field of a dipole at large distances takes simple forms:

At a point on the dipole axis (r >> a)

At a point on the equatorial plane (r >>a)

Notice the important point that the dipole field at large distances falls off not as 1/r2 but as1/r3. Further, the magnitude and the direction of the dipole field depends not only on the distance r but also on the angle between the position vector r and the dipole moment p. We can think of the limit when the dipole size 2a approaches zero, the charge q approaches infinity in such a way that the product p = q × 2a is finite. Such a dipole is referred to as a point dipole. For a point dipole, above equations are exact, true for any r.

Physical significance of dipoles

In most molecules, the centres of positive charges and of negative charges* lie at the same place. Therefore, their dipole moment is zero. CO2 and CH4 are of this type of molecules. However, they develop a dipole moment when an electric field is applied. But in some molecules, the centres of negative charges and of positive charges do not coincide. Therefore they have a permanent electric dipole moment, even in the absence of an electric field. Such molecules are called polar molecules. Water molecules, H2O, is an example of this type. Various materials give rise to interesting properties and important applications in the presence or absence of electric field.

Dipole in a uniform external field

Consider a permanent dipole of dipole moment p in a uniform external field E, as shown in Fig. 1.22. (By permanent dipole, we mean that p exists irrespective of E; it has not been induced by E.) There is a force qE on q and a force –qE on –q. The net force on the dipole is zero, since E is uniform. However, the charges are separated, so the forces act at different points, resulting in a torque on the dipole. When the net force is zero, the torque (couple) is independent of the origin. Its magnitude equals the magnitude of each force multiplied by the arm of the couple (perpendicular distance between the two antiparallel forces).

Magnitude of torque = q E × 2 a sinθ

= 2 q a E sinθ

Its direction is normal to the plane of the paper, coming out of it. The magnitude of p × E is also p E sinθ and its direction is normal to the paper, coming out of it. Thus,

This torque will tend to align the dipole with the field E. When p is aligned with E, the torque is zero.

                What happens if the field is not uniform? In that case, the net force will evidently be non-zero. In addition there will, in general, be a torque on the system as before. The general case is involved, so let us consider the simpler situations when p is parallel to E or antiparallel to E. In either case, the net torque is zero, but there is a net force on the dipole if E is not uniform.

It is easily seen that when p is parallel to E, the dipole has a net force in the direction of increasing field. When p is antiparallel to E, the net force on the dipole is in the direction of decreasing field. In general, the force depends on the orientation of p with respect to E.

This brings us to a common observation in frictional electricity. A comb run through dry hair attracts pieces of paper. The comb, as we know, acquires charge through friction. But the paper is not charged. What then explains the attractive force? Taking the clue from the preceding discussion, the charged comb ‘polarizes’ the piece of paper, i.e., induces a net dipole moment in the direction of field. Further, the electric field due to the comb is not uniform. In this situation, it is easily seen that the paper should move in the direction of the comb!